Articles | Volume 33, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-33-47-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-33-47-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Workshop report
| 
02 Apr 2024
Workshop report |
| 02 Apr 2024
| 02 Apr 2024
Paleogene Earth perturbations in the US Atlantic Coastal Plain (PEP-US): coring transects of hyperthermals to understand past carbon injections and ecosystem responses
Marci M. Robinson
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Florence Bascom Geoscience Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22032, USA
Kenneth G. Miller
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08534, USA
Tali L. Babila
Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
Timothy J. Bralower
Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
James V. Browning
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08534, USA
Marlow J. Cramwinckel
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CB, Utrecht, the Netherlands
Monika Doubrawa
Earth and Environmental Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
Gavin L. Foster
School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK
Megan K. Fung
Earth and Environmental Sciences, California Lutheran University, Thousand Oaks, CA 91360, USA
Sean Kinney
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08534, USA
Maria Makarova
independent researcher: 283 Newark Ave., Apt. 4R, Jersey City, NJ 07302, USA
Peter P. McLaughlin
Delaware Geological Survey, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
Paul N. Pearson
Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, London, WC1E, 6BT, UK
Ursula Röhl
MARUM – Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany
Morgan F. Schaller
Earth and Environmental Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
Jean M. Self-Trail
Florence Bascom Geoscience Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22032, USA
Appy Sluijs
Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
Thomas Westerhold
MARUM – Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany
James D. Wright
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08534, USA
James C. Zachos
Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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William Rush, Jean Self-Trail, Yang Zhang, Appy Sluijs, Henk Brinkhuis, James Zachos, James G. Ogg, and Marci Robinson
Clim. Past, 19, 1677–1698, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-1677-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-1677-2023, 2023
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The Eocene contains several brief warming periods referred to as hyperthermals. Studying these events and how they varied between locations can help provide insight into our future warmer world. This study provides a characterization of two of these events in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA. The records of climate that we measured demonstrate significant changes during this time period, but the type and timing of these changes highlight the complexity of climatic changes.
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Many academic laboratories worldwide process environmental samples for analysis of membrane lipid molecules of archaea, for the reconstruction of past environmental conditions. However, the sample workup scheme involves many steps, each of which has a risk of contamination or bias, affecting the results. This paper reviews steps involved in sampling, extraction and analysis of lipids, interpretation and archiving of the data. This ensures reproducable, reusable, comparable and consistent data.
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J. Micropalaeontol., 43, 441–474, https://doi.org/10.5194/jm-43-441-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/jm-43-441-2024, 2024
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We present intrinsic details of dinocyst taxa and assemblages from the sole available central Arctic late Paleocene–early Eocene sedimentary succession recovered at the central Lomonosov Ridge by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Expedition 302. We develop a pragmatic taxonomic framework, document critical biostratigraphic events, and propose two new genera and seven new species.
Julia de Entrambasaguas, Thomas Westerhold, Heather L. Jones, and Laia Alegret
J. Micropalaeontol., 43, 303–322, https://doi.org/10.5194/jm-43-303-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/jm-43-303-2024, 2024
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The Gulf Stream plays a crucial role in the ocean stability and climate regulation of the Northern Hemisphere. By analysing the fossil microorganisms that lived in the water column and the ocean floor, as well as reconstructing the ancient ocean's biogeochemistry, we were able to trace longitudinal shifts in the Gulf Stream during the late Eocene (36 Ma). Our results provide insight into the Gulf Stream's behaviour and the NW Atlantic's palaeoceanography during the Late Eocene (ca. 36 Ma).
Xiaodong Zhang, Brett J. Tipple, Jiang Zhu, William D. Rush, Christian A. Shields, Joseph B. Novak, and James C. Zachos
Clim. Past, 20, 1615–1626, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1615-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1615-2024, 2024
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This study is motivated by the current anthropogenic-warming-forced transition in regional hydroclimate. We use observations and model simulations during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) to constrain the regional/local hydroclimate response. Our findings, based on multiple observational evidence within the context of model output, suggest a transition toward greater aridity and precipitation extremes in central California during the PETM.
Dominique K. L. L. Jenny, Tammo Reichgelt, Charlotte L. O'Brien, Xiaoqing Liu, Peter K. Bijl, Matthew Huber, and Appy Sluijs
Clim. Past, 20, 1627–1657, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1627-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1627-2024, 2024
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This study reviews the current state of knowledge regarding the Oligocene
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Chris D. Fokkema, Tobias Agterhuis, Danielle Gerritsma, Myrthe de Goeij, Xiaoqing Liu, Pauline de Regt, Addison Rice, Laurens Vennema, Claudia Agnini, Peter K. Bijl, Joost Frieling, Matthew Huber, Francien Peterse, and Appy Sluijs
Clim. Past, 20, 1303–1325, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1303-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1303-2024, 2024
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Frances A. Procter, Sandra Piazolo, Eleanor H. John, Richard Walshaw, Paul N. Pearson, Caroline H. Lear, and Tracy Aze
Biogeosciences, 21, 1213–1233, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1213-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1213-2024, 2024
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This study uses novel techniques to look at the microstructure of planktonic foraminifera (single-celled marine organisms) fossils, to further our understanding of how they form their hard exterior shells and how the microstructure and chemistry of these shells can change as a result of processes that occur after deposition on the seafloor. Understanding these processes is of critical importance for using planktonic foraminifera for robust climate and environmental reconstructions of the past.
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Clim. Past, 19, 2493–2510, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-2493-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-2493-2023, 2023
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Joost Frieling, Linda van Roij, Iris Kleij, Gert-Jan Reichart, and Appy Sluijs
Biogeosciences, 20, 4651–4668, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4651-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4651-2023, 2023
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We present a first species-specific evaluation of marine core-top dinoflagellate cyst carbon isotope fractionation (εp) to assess natural pCO2 dependency on εp and explore its geological deep-time paleo-pCO2 proxy potential. We find that εp differs between genera and species and that in Operculodinium centrocarpum, εp is controlled by pCO2 and nutrients. Our results highlight the added value of δ13C analyses of individual micrometer-scale sedimentary organic carbon particles.
Stephen P. Hesselbo, Aisha Al-Suwaidi, Sarah J. Baker, Giorgia Ballabio, Claire M. Belcher, Andrew Bond, Ian Boomer, Remco Bos, Christian J. Bjerrum, Kara Bogus, Richard Boyle, James V. Browning, Alan R. Butcher, Daniel J. Condon, Philip Copestake, Stuart Daines, Christopher Dalby, Magret Damaschke, Susana E. Damborenea, Jean-Francois Deconinck, Alexander J. Dickson, Isabel M. Fendley, Calum P. Fox, Angela Fraguas, Joost Frieling, Thomas A. Gibson, Tianchen He, Kat Hickey, Linda A. Hinnov, Teuntje P. Hollaar, Chunju Huang, Alexander J. L. Hudson, Hugh C. Jenkyns, Erdem Idiz, Mengjie Jiang, Wout Krijgsman, Christoph Korte, Melanie J. Leng, Timothy M. Lenton, Katharina Leu, Crispin T. S. Little, Conall MacNiocaill, Miguel O. Manceñido, Tamsin A. Mather, Emanuela Mattioli, Kenneth G. Miller, Robert J. Newton, Kevin N. Page, József Pálfy, Gregory Pieńkowski, Richard J. Porter, Simon W. Poulton, Alberto C. Riccardi, James B. Riding, Ailsa Roper, Micha Ruhl, Ricardo L. Silva, Marisa S. Storm, Guillaume Suan, Dominika Szűcs, Nicolas Thibault, Alfred Uchman, James N. Stanley, Clemens V. Ullmann, Bas van de Schootbrugge, Madeleine L. Vickers, Sonja Wadas, Jessica H. Whiteside, Paul B. Wignall, Thomas Wonik, Weimu Xu, Christian Zeeden, and Ke Zhao
Sci. Dril., 32, 1–25, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-32-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-32-1-2023, 2023
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We present initial results from a 650 m long core of Late Triasssic to Early Jurassic (190–202 Myr) sedimentary strata from the Cheshire Basin, UK, which is shown to be an exceptional record of Earth evolution for the time of break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea. Further work will determine periodic changes in depositional environments caused by solar system dynamics and used to reconstruct orbital history.
William Rush, Jean Self-Trail, Yang Zhang, Appy Sluijs, Henk Brinkhuis, James Zachos, James G. Ogg, and Marci Robinson
Clim. Past, 19, 1677–1698, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-1677-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-1677-2023, 2023
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The Eocene contains several brief warming periods referred to as hyperthermals. Studying these events and how they varied between locations can help provide insight into our future warmer world. This study provides a characterization of two of these events in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA. The records of climate that we measured demonstrate significant changes during this time period, but the type and timing of these changes highlight the complexity of climatic changes.
Jesse R. Farmer, Katherine J. Keller, Robert K. Poirier, Gary S. Dwyer, Morgan F. Schaller, Helen K. Coxall, Matt O'Regan, and Thomas M. Cronin
Clim. Past, 19, 555–578, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-555-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-555-2023, 2023
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Oxygen isotopes are used to date marine sediments via similar large-scale ocean patterns over glacial cycles. However, the Arctic Ocean exhibits a different isotope pattern, creating uncertainty in the timing of past Arctic climate change. We find that the Arctic Ocean experienced large local oxygen isotope changes over glacial cycles. We attribute this to a breakdown of stratification during ice ages that allowed for a unique low isotope value to characterize the ice age Arctic Ocean.
Yord W. Yedema, Francesca Sangiorgi, Appy Sluijs, Jaap S. Sinninghe Damsté, and Francien Peterse
Biogeosciences, 20, 663–686, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-663-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-663-2023, 2023
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Terrestrial organic matter (TerrOM) is transported to the ocean by rivers, where its burial can potentially form a long-term carbon sink. This burial is dependent on the type and characteristics of the TerrOM. We used bulk sediment properties, biomarkers, and palynology to identify the dispersal patterns of plant-derived, soil–microbial, and marine OM in the northern Gulf of Mexico and show that plant-derived OM is transported further into the coastal zone than soil and marine-produced TerrOM.
Pauline Cornuault, Thomas Westerhold, Heiko Pälike, Torsten Bickert, Karl-Heinz Baumann, and Michal Kucera
Biogeosciences, 20, 597–618, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-597-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-597-2023, 2023
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We generated high-resolution records of carbonate accumulation rate from the Miocene to the Quaternary in the tropical Atlantic Ocean to characterize the variability in pelagic carbonate production during warm climates. It follows orbital cycles, responding to local changes in tropical conditions, as well as to long-term shifts in climate and ocean chemistry. These changes were sufficiently large to play a role in the carbon cycle and global climate evolution.
Ji-Eun Kim, Thomas Westerhold, Laia Alegret, Anna Joy Drury, Ursula Röhl, and Elizabeth M. Griffith
Clim. Past, 18, 2631–2641, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-2631-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-2631-2022, 2022
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This study attempts to gain a better understanding of the marine biological carbon pump and ecosystem functioning under warmer-than-today conditions. Our records from marine sediments show the Pacific tropical marine biological carbon pump was driven by variations in seasonal insolation in the tropics during the Late Cretaceous and may play a key role in modulating climate and the carbon cycle globally in the future.
Carolien M. H. van der Weijst, Koen J. van der Laan, Francien Peterse, Gert-Jan Reichart, Francesca Sangiorgi, Stefan Schouten, Tjerk J. T. Veenstra, and Appy Sluijs
Clim. Past, 18, 1947–1962, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1947-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1947-2022, 2022
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The TEX86 proxy is often used by paleoceanographers to reconstruct past sea-surface temperatures. However, the origin of the TEX86 signal in marine sediments has been debated since the proxy was first proposed. In our paper, we show that TEX86 carries a mixed sea-surface and subsurface temperature signal and should be calibrated accordingly. Using our 15-million-year record, we subsequently show how a TEX86 subsurface temperature record can be used to inform us on past sea-surface temperatures.
Karen M. Brandenburg, Björn Rost, Dedmer B. Van de Waal, Mirja Hoins, and Appy Sluijs
Biogeosciences, 19, 3305–3315, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3305-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3305-2022, 2022
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Reconstructions of past CO2 concentrations rely on proxy estimates, with one line of proxies relying on the CO2-dependence of stable carbon isotope fractionation in marine phytoplankton. Culturing experiments provide insights into which processes may impact this. We found, however, that the methods with which these culturing experiments are performed also influence 13C fractionation. Caution should therefore be taken when extrapolating results from these experiments to proxy applications.
Carolien M. H. van der Weijst, Josse Winkelhorst, Wesley de Nooijer, Anna von der Heydt, Gert-Jan Reichart, Francesca Sangiorgi, and Appy Sluijs
Clim. Past, 18, 961–973, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-961-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-961-2022, 2022
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A hypothesized link between Pliocene (5.3–2.5 million years ago) global climate and tropical thermocline depth is currently only backed up by data from the Pacific Ocean. In our paper, we present temperature, salinity, and thermocline records from the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Surprisingly, the Pliocene thermocline evolution was remarkably different in the Atlantic and Pacific. We need to reevaluate the mechanisms that drive thermocline depth, and how these are tied to global climate change.
Peter K. Bijl, Joost Frieling, Marlow Julius Cramwinckel, Christine Boschman, Appy Sluijs, and Francien Peterse
Clim. Past, 17, 2393–2425, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2393-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2393-2021, 2021
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Here, we use the latest insights for GDGT and dinocyst-based paleotemperature and paleoenvironmental reconstructions in late Cretaceous–early Oligocene sediments from ODP Site 1172 (East Tasman Plateau, Australia). We reconstruct strong river runoff during the Paleocene–early Eocene, a progressive decline thereafter with increased wet/dry seasonality in the northward-drifting hinterland. Our critical review leaves the anomalous warmth of the Eocene SW Pacific Ocean unexplained.
Anna Joy Drury, Diederik Liebrand, Thomas Westerhold, Helen M. Beddow, David A. Hodell, Nina Rohlfs, Roy H. Wilkens, Mitchell Lyle, David B. Bell, Dick Kroon, Heiko Pälike, and Lucas J. Lourens
Clim. Past, 17, 2091–2117, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2091-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2091-2021, 2021
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We use the first high-resolution southeast Atlantic carbonate record to see how climate dynamics evolved since 30 million years ago (Ma). During ~ 30–13 Ma, eccentricity (orbital circularity) paced carbonate deposition. After the mid-Miocene Climate Transition (~ 14 Ma), precession (Earth's tilt direction) increasingly drove carbonate variability. In the latest Miocene (~ 8 Ma), obliquity (Earth's tilt) pacing appeared, signalling increasing high-latitude influence.
Gerrit Müller, Jack J. Middelburg, and Appy Sluijs
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 3565–3575, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3565-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3565-2021, 2021
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Rivers are major freshwater resources, connectors and transporters on Earth. As the composition of river waters and particles results from processes in their catchment, such as erosion, weathering, environmental pollution, nutrient and carbon cycling, Earth-spanning databases of river composition are needed for studies of these processes on a global scale. While extensive resources on water and nutrient composition exist, we provide a database of river particle composition.
Christopher M. Lowery, Jean M. Self-Trail, and Craig D. Barrie
Clim. Past, 17, 1227–1242, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1227-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1227-2021, 2021
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Recent work has shown that the mid-Cretaceous Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 (OAE2, ∼ 94 million years ago) was associated with a global increase in precipitation, but regional patterns are still poorly known. We present two new OAE2 records from the ancient inner continental shelf of North Carolina, USA. These cores show an increase in the amount of land-plant-derived organic matter delivered to the inner shelf during OAE2, indicating that this region experienced increased precipitation during OAE2.
Annique van der Boon, Klaudia F. Kuiper, Robin van der Ploeg, Marlow Julius Cramwinckel, Maryam Honarmand, Appy Sluijs, and Wout Krijgsman
Clim. Past, 17, 229–239, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-229-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-229-2021, 2021
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40.5 million years ago, Earth's climate warmed, but it is unknown why. Enhanced volcanism has been suggested, but this has not yet been tied to a specific region. We explore an increase in volcanism in Iran. We dated igneous rocks and compiled ages from the literature. We estimated the volume of igneous rocks in Iran in order to calculate the amount of CO2 that could have been released due to enhanced volcanism. We conclude that an increase in volcanism in Iran is a plausible cause of warming.
Daniel J. Lunt, Fran Bragg, Wing-Le Chan, David K. Hutchinson, Jean-Baptiste Ladant, Polina Morozova, Igor Niezgodzki, Sebastian Steinig, Zhongshi Zhang, Jiang Zhu, Ayako Abe-Ouchi, Eleni Anagnostou, Agatha M. de Boer, Helen K. Coxall, Yannick Donnadieu, Gavin Foster, Gordon N. Inglis, Gregor Knorr, Petra M. Langebroek, Caroline H. Lear, Gerrit Lohmann, Christopher J. Poulsen, Pierre Sepulchre, Jessica E. Tierney, Paul J. Valdes, Evgeny M. Volodin, Tom Dunkley Jones, Christopher J. Hollis, Matthew Huber, and Bette L. Otto-Bliesner
Clim. Past, 17, 203–227, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-203-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-203-2021, 2021
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This paper presents the first modelling results from the Deep-Time Model Intercomparison Project (DeepMIP), in which we focus on the early Eocene climatic optimum (EECO, 50 million years ago). We show that, in contrast to previous work, at least three models (CESM, GFDL, and NorESM) produce climate states that are consistent with proxy indicators of global mean temperature and polar amplification, and they achieve this at a CO2 concentration that is consistent with the CO2 proxy record.
Michiel Baatsen, Anna S. von der Heydt, Matthew Huber, Michael A. Kliphuis, Peter K. Bijl, Appy Sluijs, and Henk A. Dijkstra
Clim. Past, 16, 2573–2597, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-2573-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-2573-2020, 2020
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Warm climates of the deep past have proven to be challenging to reconstruct with the same numerical models used for future predictions. We present results of CESM simulations for the middle to late Eocene (∼ 38 Ma), in which we managed to match the available indications of temperature well. With these results we can now look into regional features and the response to external changes to ultimately better understand the climate when it is in such a warm state.
André Bahr, Monika Doubrawa, Jürgen Titschack, Gregor Austermann, Andreas Koutsodendris, Dirk Nürnberg, Ana Luiza Albuquerque, Oliver Friedrich, and Jacek Raddatz
Biogeosciences, 17, 5883–5908, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5883-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5883-2020, 2020
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We explore the sensitivity of cold-water corals (CWCs) to environmental changes utilizing a multiproxy approach on a coral-bearing sediment core from off southeastern Brazil. Our results reveal that over the past 160 kyr, CWCs flourished during glacial high-northern-latitude cold events (Heinrich stadials). These periods were associated with anomalous wet phases on the continent enhancing terrigenous nutrient and organic-matter supply to the continental margin, boosting food supply to the CWCs.
Appy Sluijs, Joost Frieling, Gordon N. Inglis, Klaas G. J. Nierop, Francien Peterse, Francesca Sangiorgi, and Stefan Schouten
Clim. Past, 16, 2381–2400, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-2381-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-2381-2020, 2020
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We revisit 15-year-old reconstructions of sea surface temperatures in the Arctic Ocean for the late Paleocene and early Eocene epochs (∼ 57–53 million years ago) based on the distribution of fossil membrane lipids of archaea preserved in Arctic Ocean sediments. We find that improvements in the methods over the past 15 years do not lead to different results. However, data quality is now higher and potential biases better characterized. Results confirm remarkable Arctic warmth during this time.
Gordon N. Inglis, Fran Bragg, Natalie J. Burls, Marlow Julius Cramwinckel, David Evans, Gavin L. Foster, Matthew Huber, Daniel J. Lunt, Nicholas Siler, Sebastian Steinig, Jessica E. Tierney, Richard Wilkinson, Eleni Anagnostou, Agatha M. de Boer, Tom Dunkley Jones, Kirsty M. Edgar, Christopher J. Hollis, David K. Hutchinson, and Richard D. Pancost
Clim. Past, 16, 1953–1968, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-1953-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-1953-2020, 2020
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This paper presents estimates of global mean surface temperatures and climate sensitivity during the early Paleogene (∼57–48 Ma). We employ a multi-method experimental approach and show that i) global mean surface temperatures range between 27 and 32°C and that ii) estimates of
bulkequilibrium climate sensitivity (∼3 to 4.5°C) fall within the range predicted by the IPCC AR5 Report. This work improves our understanding of two key climate metrics during the early Paleogene.
Cited articles
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Short summary
The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) is the closest geological analog to modern anthropogenic CO2 emissions, but its causes and the responses remain enigmatic. Coastal plain sediments can resolve this uncertainty, but their discontinuous nature requires numerous sites to constrain events. Workshop participants identified 10 drill sites that target the PETM and other interesting intervals. Our post-drilling research will provide valuable insights into Earth system responses.
The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) is the closest geological analog to modern...
